TECHNICAL PROGRAMME | Energy Infrastructure – Future Pathways
Hydrogen Transportation
Forum 10 | Digital Poster Plaza 2
29
April
14:00
16:00
UTC+3
Hydrogen is an energy source to become the key for the carbon neutral. Since its utilisation and application are expanding out not only as fuel but also as a raw material, hydrogen is expected to be utilised in the wide industrial fields. For promoting the utilisation of hydrogen, construction of the hydrogen supply chain is indispensable, and in recent years the development of marine transportation technology to enable a long-distance and mass transit, various techniques about pipelines and trailers delivering hydrogen to the demand place, and technologies for storage of a large quantity of hydrogen are attracting attention. This forum is focused on the current situation of technologies and the infrastructure necessary for hydrogen transportation and future challenges.
OBJECTIVE:
Large-scale hydrogen liquefaction (XL LH2) technologies are crucial for enabling cost-effective intercontinental hydrogen transport supply chains. This abstract assesses the economic and technological readiness of XL LH2 technologies and identifies key development needs. It also examines the feasibility of integrating XL LH2 with low-carbon hydrogen production via reforming and electrolysis, highlighting its essential role in enabling the global transport and utilization of low-carbon hydrogen.
SCALING UP LIQUEFACTION TRAINS:
Furthermore, emerging boiloff gas management technologies derived from LNG will bring additional significant TCO reductions to the LH2 export value chain.
ACHIEVING XL LH2 DOWNSTREAM OF REFORMING & ELECTROLYTIC H2 PRODUCTION:
Low-carbon LH2: All technologies are available to produce LH2 downstream of thermochemical reforming (SMR/ATR) with carbon capture, and integrated process solutions will optimize overall TCO.
Renewable LH2: Producing renewable LH2 presents some challenges as cryogenic processes are typically developed for steady supply of energy and feedstocks; however, solar and wind are intermittent. Therefore, overcoming this intermittency hurdle will require development on cryogenic technologies, flexible operations and process control to maximize liquid hydrogen production while managing frequent transitory runs. Furthermore, proprietary algorithms have been developed to optimize the entire renewable LH2 value chain, including the process scheme and equipment sizing, to identify the most cost-effective solution during early development.
CONCLUSION:
LH2 will play an important role in the intercontinental export of low-carbon energy, and technological advancements are on track to enable future LH2 export markets. Encouragingly, our techno-readiness assessment indicates that current technologies can support liquefaction up to approximately 150tpd, with ready-for-offer designs. Our analysis also found that scaling beyond 500tpd trains brings considerable liquefaction TCO reductions up to -60% versus today’s state-of-the-art.
Large-scale hydrogen liquefaction (XL LH2) technologies are crucial for enabling cost-effective intercontinental hydrogen transport supply chains. This abstract assesses the economic and technological readiness of XL LH2 technologies and identifies key development needs. It also examines the feasibility of integrating XL LH2 with low-carbon hydrogen production via reforming and electrolysis, highlighting its essential role in enabling the global transport and utilization of low-carbon hydrogen.
SCALING UP LIQUEFACTION TRAINS:
- 5-50tpd: State-of-the-art & referenced technology with a nitrogen precooling cycle and either a hydrogen or helium liquefaction cycle.
- 50-150tpd: Technologies are available with ready-for-offer designs. The implementation of hydrogen expanders with energy recovery and liquid turbines bring considerable efficiency gains. We also detect significant capex optimization opportunities thanks to scale-effect. Scaling up is an opportunity to reduce total cost of ownership (TCO) by -30% to -45% versus state-of-the-art (30tpd executed liquefier).
- 150-300tpd: Extra-large scale is just around the corner. Key technologies are already ready for implementation, notably the innovative cycles, large nitrogen & mixed-refrigerant compressors, and large cold boxes. To achieve these capacities, future techno developments are required to scale up the hydrogen & nitrogen expanders and hydrogen compressors. Techno developments are well on track, and this scale is an opportunity to reduce TCO by -50% to -60% versus state-of-the-art.
- 500tpd+: Scaling to very large trains is an interesting step to improve economics. Although these technologies are still in the development phase, they are anticipated to be feasible at this scale and allow TCO reductions of at least -60%++ versus state-of-the-art.
Furthermore, emerging boiloff gas management technologies derived from LNG will bring additional significant TCO reductions to the LH2 export value chain.
ACHIEVING XL LH2 DOWNSTREAM OF REFORMING & ELECTROLYTIC H2 PRODUCTION:
Low-carbon LH2: All technologies are available to produce LH2 downstream of thermochemical reforming (SMR/ATR) with carbon capture, and integrated process solutions will optimize overall TCO.
Renewable LH2: Producing renewable LH2 presents some challenges as cryogenic processes are typically developed for steady supply of energy and feedstocks; however, solar and wind are intermittent. Therefore, overcoming this intermittency hurdle will require development on cryogenic technologies, flexible operations and process control to maximize liquid hydrogen production while managing frequent transitory runs. Furthermore, proprietary algorithms have been developed to optimize the entire renewable LH2 value chain, including the process scheme and equipment sizing, to identify the most cost-effective solution during early development.
CONCLUSION:
LH2 will play an important role in the intercontinental export of low-carbon energy, and technological advancements are on track to enable future LH2 export markets. Encouragingly, our techno-readiness assessment indicates that current technologies can support liquefaction up to approximately 150tpd, with ready-for-offer designs. Our analysis also found that scaling beyond 500tpd trains brings considerable liquefaction TCO reductions up to -60% versus today’s state-of-the-art.
The global pursuit of clean, secure, and sustainable energy systems has elevated hydrogen to a central role in decarbonization strategies. As a versatile, carbon-free energy carrier, hydrogen can be produced from diverse feedstocks—including water, biomass, and fossil fuels—and its combustion emits only water, offering a transformative solution for sectors resistant to electrification, such as heavy industry, long-haul transport, and grid stabilization. Beyond its environmental advantages, hydrogen enables large-scale energy storage, mitigates intermittency of renewables, and enhances systemic flexibility. To assess its full potential, the hydrogen value chain must be examined across four interdependent domains: production, storage, transportation, and utilization. Current hydrogen production is dominated by steam methane reforming (SMR) and coal gasification, which are cost-effective but carbon-intensive. In contrast, water electrolysis powered by renewable electricity yields "green hydrogen" with near-zero emissions. Technological advancements in electrolyzers—notably proton exchange membrane (PEM), alkaline, and solid oxide systems—have improved efficiency and scalability, though challenges like high capital costs and energy inputs persist. Emerging methods, such as biomass gasification and solar-driven photoelectrochemical splitting, show promise but require further development to achieve commercial viability. Efficient storage is critical to align hydrogen’s intermittent production with demand. Compressed gas and cryogenic liquid storage are mature technologies but suffer from low energy density and boil-off losses. Solid-state alternatives, such as metal hydrides and porous adsorbents (e.g., metal-organic frameworks), offer higher volumetric efficiency and enhanced safety. However, material degradation, thermal management, and scalability issues necessitate ongoing research to optimize these systems for widespread deployment. Hydrogen’s low density and reactivity pose unique transport challenges. Pipelines are cost-effective for regional distribution but require specialized materials to prevent embrittlement. For long-distance transport, liquefied hydrogen tankers and chemical carriers (e.g., ammonia, liquid organic hydrogen carriers) are gaining traction, with recent improvements in cryogenic insulation and catalytic conversion efficiency reducing energy penalties. Hydrogen’s versatility enables deep decarbonization across multiple sectors. In transport, it powers fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs), heavy-duty trucks, and maritime vessels, with prototypes for aviation underscoring its potential for energy-dense applications. Industrial uses include steelmaking via direct reduced iron (DRI) processes, reducing CO₂ emissions by over 90% compared to conventional blast furnaces. Hydrogen also serves as a critical feedstock for ammonia synthesis, methanol production, and petroleum refining, while its integration into gas turbines and hybrid power plants enhances grid stability. Hydrogen’s unique attributes—clean combustion, storage capacity, and cross-sector applicability—make it indispensable for achieving net-zero emissions. Realizing its full potential demands coordinated advancements across production, storage, transport, and end-use technologies, supported by policy frameworks and infrastructure investments. As renewable energy capacity expands, hydrogen is poised to underpin resilient, low-carbon energy systems worldwide.
Hydrogen energy development serves as a critical pathway to achieve "carbon peaking and carbon neutrality" goals and ensure energy security. However, a spatiotemporal mismatch exists between green hydrogen supply and demand in China, where abundant renewable resources in the northwest contrast with concentrated energy consumption in eastern regions. To address this challenge, China Petroleum and Chemical Corporation (SINOPEC) has initiated the Long-Distance Hydrogen Transportation Project, establishing hydrogen pipelines exceeding 1,000 kilometers for cross-regional distribution. In the course of hydrogen transportation, key hydrogen facing equipment such as pipelines, storage tanks, compressors, etc. face extreme factors such as high-pressure hydrogen gas, extreme temperature, and cyclic use conditions during service, which can easily lead to equipment failure under coupling effects. Therefore, it is urgent to attach great importance to the material failure risk in the process of green hydrogen transportation. This article studies the failure mechanisms of these three devices, such as the long-term contact between pipes and hydrogen, which can cause hydrogen to invade the interior of hydrogen pipelines, resulting in reduced pipe performance and decreased fracture toughness; Hydrogen storage containers are subjected to continuous pressure fluctuations, which can lead to the accumulation of microscopic damage in stress concentration areas, thereby inducing crack initiation and propagation, ultimately resulting in fracture failure; Diaphragm hydrogen compressors are subjected to high-pressure hydrogen, high environmental temperature, and high-frequency fatigue loads, causing a transformation in the microstructure of the material and resulting in a decrease in mechanical properties. Under frequent collision and deformation between the diaphragm and the diaphragm cavity, they eventually rupture and fail. On the basis of in-depth analysis of the failure mechanism of the above-mentioned equipment in high-pressure hydrogen environment, this article further proposes targeted safety suggestions from multiple aspects such as material modification, structural design, and process optimization, laying a solid safety foundation for the design and operation of long-distance hydrogen transmission pipeline projects and ensuring the safe and high-quality development of the green hydrogen industry.
Co-author/s:
Zhe Yang, President, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
Wei Xu, Vice President, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
Wenyi Dang, Vice President, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
Qian Wu, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
Yun Luo, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
Anfeng Yu, Expert, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
Huan Liu, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
Zetian Kang, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
Co-author/s:
Zhe Yang, President, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
Wei Xu, Vice President, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
Wenyi Dang, Vice President, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
Qian Wu, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
Yun Luo, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
Anfeng Yu, Expert, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
Huan Liu, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
Zetian Kang, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
As hydrogen emerges as a critical pillar of the global decarbonization agenda, enabling its safe, cost-effective, and scalable transportation is essential. One strategic approach is the repurposing of existing oil and gas infrastructure—particularly midstream pipeline networks and subsurface storage reservoirs—for hydrogen transmission. This reuse strategy offers significant capital cost savings and deployment speed; however, it introduces substantial technical risks due to hydrogen’s unique properties. Its low molecular weight, high diffusivity, and propensity to cause material embrittlement increase the probability of undetected leakage, structural degradation, and cascading failure events. These limitations necessitate advanced monitoring architectures beyond conventional integrity management systems.
This research proposes an end-to-end framework that combines repurposed infrastructure with intelligent, AI-based leak detection and predictive monitoring systems. The approach comprises four main stages:
4. Risk Scoring and Decision Support: A real-time risk dashboard correlates leak probability indices, location certainty, and severity levels. Predictive maintenance schedules are generated by coupling AI output with a digital twin of the infrastructure, reducing both false alarms and unplanned downtime.
Informed by insights from recent advancements in underground hydrogen storage—including wettability dynamics, brine-rock-H₂ interaction, and caprock sealing failure—this framework ensures that geomechanical and geochemical risks are accounted for during model training and operational calibration.
By combining retrofitted legacy systems with next-generation intelligent diagnostics, this research delivers a scalable blueprint for hydrogen transport that meets stringent safety, environmental, and economic performance metrics. It establishes a practical foundation for integrating hydrogen into national energy grids while ensuring integrity across critical assets during the energy transition.
This research proposes an end-to-end framework that combines repurposed infrastructure with intelligent, AI-based leak detection and predictive monitoring systems. The approach comprises four main stages:
- Sensor Data Integration: Deployment of a multi-modal sensor array (acoustic emission sensors, distributed fiber-optic sensors, pressure and flow meters, and electrochemical H₂ sensors) along pipeline routes and at critical stress points (e.g., valves, weld zones, storage wells). These generate high-resolution spatial-temporal data on strain, vibration, pressure transients, and gas composition.
- Data Preprocessing and Fusion: Application of signal denoising techniques, time-series synchronization, and data fusion methods to integrate heterogeneous sensor outputs. Feature engineering extracts meaningful physical patterns such as micro-leak signatures, abrupt pressure drops, or harmonic changes indicative of crack propagation.
- AI Model Architecture: Design of a hybrid machine learning pipeline consisting of:
- Supervised classifiers (e.g., gradient boosting, CNN-LSTM) trained on labeled fault events and benchmark datasets to identify and classify leak types.
- Unsupervised models (e.g., autoencoders, isolation forests) to detect early-stage anomalies in non-linear patterns where no labeled failures exist.
- Physics-informed neural networks (PINNs) integrated with hydrogen flow simulations and fracture mechanics to enhance model interpretability and generalizability under unseen conditions.
4. Risk Scoring and Decision Support: A real-time risk dashboard correlates leak probability indices, location certainty, and severity levels. Predictive maintenance schedules are generated by coupling AI output with a digital twin of the infrastructure, reducing both false alarms and unplanned downtime.
Informed by insights from recent advancements in underground hydrogen storage—including wettability dynamics, brine-rock-H₂ interaction, and caprock sealing failure—this framework ensures that geomechanical and geochemical risks are accounted for during model training and operational calibration.
By combining retrofitted legacy systems with next-generation intelligent diagnostics, this research delivers a scalable blueprint for hydrogen transport that meets stringent safety, environmental, and economic performance metrics. It establishes a practical foundation for integrating hydrogen into national energy grids while ensuring integrity across critical assets during the energy transition.
As Egypt advances its energy strategy and moves toward becoming a regional energy hub, integrating hydrogen into the natural gas infrastructure is a strategic priority within the national hydrogen plan. This paper explores the technical feasibility, operational challenges, international benchmarks, and strategic opportunities for hydrogen delivery in Egypt’s gas networks, focusing on both low-level blending and the transition toward dedicated hydrogen systems.
Hydrogen’s unique physical and chemical properties—high diffusivity, low density, and wide flammability range—pose challenges when mixed with natural gas. These include reduced energy content per unit volume, increased flow velocity, potential material degradation, and heightened safety considerations. The analysis covers two main scenarios: blending hydrogen with natural gas at up to 20% by volume and developing 100% hydrogen transport corridors. Each scenario is assessed in terms of technical performance, regulatory requirements, contractual adjustments, and environmental impacts.
A review of Egypt’s gas network reveals regulatory and technical gaps that must be addressed to ensure safe and efficient hydrogen integration. International experiences from Germany, the Netherlands, Japan, and South Korea show the value of standardized pipeline materials, advanced leak detection, and continuous gas composition monitoring. Case studies such as HyDeploy (UK), HyNet North West (UK), and HyStock (Netherlands) demonstrate practical lessons in scaling hydrogen blending, integrating storage, and coordinating multi-stakeholder governance.
To quantify operational impacts, the Synergi Gas simulation platform was used to model the effects of hydrogen blending on pipeline hydraulics, pressure drops, flow velocities, and material compatibility. The results highlight the urgent need to upgrade legacy infrastructure, optimize pipeline diameters, reinforce compressor capacity, and install hydrogen-calibrated metering and regulation systems to maintain operational efficiency and safety.
The environmental and economic assessment indicates that hydrogen blending can contribute to emissions reduction and energy diversification but requires clear frameworks for implementation and robust monitoring strategies. Recommended actions include adopting hydrogen-compatible materials, expanding storage capacity—especially through salt cavern projects—decentralizing injection points to enhance system flexibility, and improving coordination between TSOs, DSOs, suppliers, shippers, regulators, and the Ministry of Petroleum.
For successful deployment, Egypt must update legal and technical standards to define blending limits, ensure infrastructure compatibility, and enforce hydrogen quality control. Coupled with investment planning, targeted economic incentives, and a strong governance model, these measures will encourage participation in the hydrogen value chain. With coordinated policy action, infrastructure modernization, and stakeholder engagement, Egypt can safely and efficiently adapt its gas network to support a low-carbon, hydrogen-enabled future.
Hydrogen’s unique physical and chemical properties—high diffusivity, low density, and wide flammability range—pose challenges when mixed with natural gas. These include reduced energy content per unit volume, increased flow velocity, potential material degradation, and heightened safety considerations. The analysis covers two main scenarios: blending hydrogen with natural gas at up to 20% by volume and developing 100% hydrogen transport corridors. Each scenario is assessed in terms of technical performance, regulatory requirements, contractual adjustments, and environmental impacts.
A review of Egypt’s gas network reveals regulatory and technical gaps that must be addressed to ensure safe and efficient hydrogen integration. International experiences from Germany, the Netherlands, Japan, and South Korea show the value of standardized pipeline materials, advanced leak detection, and continuous gas composition monitoring. Case studies such as HyDeploy (UK), HyNet North West (UK), and HyStock (Netherlands) demonstrate practical lessons in scaling hydrogen blending, integrating storage, and coordinating multi-stakeholder governance.
To quantify operational impacts, the Synergi Gas simulation platform was used to model the effects of hydrogen blending on pipeline hydraulics, pressure drops, flow velocities, and material compatibility. The results highlight the urgent need to upgrade legacy infrastructure, optimize pipeline diameters, reinforce compressor capacity, and install hydrogen-calibrated metering and regulation systems to maintain operational efficiency and safety.
The environmental and economic assessment indicates that hydrogen blending can contribute to emissions reduction and energy diversification but requires clear frameworks for implementation and robust monitoring strategies. Recommended actions include adopting hydrogen-compatible materials, expanding storage capacity—especially through salt cavern projects—decentralizing injection points to enhance system flexibility, and improving coordination between TSOs, DSOs, suppliers, shippers, regulators, and the Ministry of Petroleum.
For successful deployment, Egypt must update legal and technical standards to define blending limits, ensure infrastructure compatibility, and enforce hydrogen quality control. Coupled with investment planning, targeted economic incentives, and a strong governance model, these measures will encourage participation in the hydrogen value chain. With coordinated policy action, infrastructure modernization, and stakeholder engagement, Egypt can safely and efficiently adapt its gas network to support a low-carbon, hydrogen-enabled future.
After years of rapid development of wind power industry in China, the development of excellent onshore wind power and offshore wind power resources has approached saturation, and deep sea offshore wind power has become an inevitable choice for industrial development. The exploitable offshore wind energy resources in China's deep-sea areas exceed 2 billion kilowatts, making deep-sea offshore wind power an inevitable choice for industrial development. However, the grid connection and consumption of deep-sea electricity are challenging. The conventional method of collection, transmission, boosting/conversion, and power delivery via submarine cables incurs exceedingly high costs. Offshore wind power hydrogen production emerges as a potential solution for consumption. However, due to the extremely low density of hydrogen, traditional high-pressure hydrogen storage methods exhibit low volumetric energy density, failing to meet the requirements in terms of safety, hydrogen storage density, and cost. It is imperative to explore novel approaches suitable for offshore storage and transportation, capable of convenient storage and consumption at a higher volumetric energy density.
Liquid organic hydrogen carrier(LOHC) exhibits high volumetric and gravimetric energy densities, enabling storage and transportation under ambient temperature and pressure conditions. It leverages existing oil infrastructure, presenting a promising application prospect. Methylcyclohexane-toluene is one of the most promising LOHC technologies, capable of fully utilizing existing oil infrastructure, including offshore oil platforms, Floating Production Storage and Offloading(FPSO) units, submarine oil pipelines, oil tankers, receiving terminals, and oil storage tanks. This facilitates a deep integration of the offshore oil industry with the offshore wind power industry, significantly reducing storage and transportation costs.
Taking the deep-sea offshore wind power in the Shanwei area of eastern Guangdong, China, as an example, hydrogen is produced and then stored and transported using methylcyclohexane-toluene as the medium, leveraging existing offshore oil industrial facilities.
Scenario 1: An FPSO equipped with a booster station, a hydrogen production station, and toluene hydrogenation facilities is stationed within the offshore wind farm. Toluene is synthesized with hydrogen produced from offshore wind power to form methylcyclohexane, which is then stored. Periodically, oil tankers transport the methylcyclohexane back to land for reception, storage, and centralized dehydrogenation.
Scenario 2: Utilizing existing decommissioned offshore platforms, a booster station, a hydrogen production station, and toluene hydrogenation facilities are established. The produced methylcyclohexane is transported to onshore storage and centralized dehydrogenation through existing submarine oil pipelines.
A technical and cost analysis of the above two options is conducted, including the calculation of hydrogen costs at each stage and a comparative economic analysis. This provides a reference for the integrated development of deep-sea offshore wind power and the offshore oil industry.
Liquid organic hydrogen carrier(LOHC) exhibits high volumetric and gravimetric energy densities, enabling storage and transportation under ambient temperature and pressure conditions. It leverages existing oil infrastructure, presenting a promising application prospect. Methylcyclohexane-toluene is one of the most promising LOHC technologies, capable of fully utilizing existing oil infrastructure, including offshore oil platforms, Floating Production Storage and Offloading(FPSO) units, submarine oil pipelines, oil tankers, receiving terminals, and oil storage tanks. This facilitates a deep integration of the offshore oil industry with the offshore wind power industry, significantly reducing storage and transportation costs.
Taking the deep-sea offshore wind power in the Shanwei area of eastern Guangdong, China, as an example, hydrogen is produced and then stored and transported using methylcyclohexane-toluene as the medium, leveraging existing offshore oil industrial facilities.
Scenario 1: An FPSO equipped with a booster station, a hydrogen production station, and toluene hydrogenation facilities is stationed within the offshore wind farm. Toluene is synthesized with hydrogen produced from offshore wind power to form methylcyclohexane, which is then stored. Periodically, oil tankers transport the methylcyclohexane back to land for reception, storage, and centralized dehydrogenation.
Scenario 2: Utilizing existing decommissioned offshore platforms, a booster station, a hydrogen production station, and toluene hydrogenation facilities are established. The produced methylcyclohexane is transported to onshore storage and centralized dehydrogenation through existing submarine oil pipelines.
A technical and cost analysis of the above two options is conducted, including the calculation of hydrogen costs at each stage and a comparative economic analysis. This provides a reference for the integrated development of deep-sea offshore wind power and the offshore oil industry.
In January 2024 the working group “Working Party on Regulatory Cooperation and Standardization Policies” was established under UNECE WP 6. The target is to prepare recommendations for the transportation of hydrogen through main pipelines. Representatives from six countries – Germany, the USA, Russia, China, Canada and Belgium, as well as experts from industrial associations within the European Union (IRENA), Russia (RSPP Committee), and the USA (API) - took part in the working group activities.
The purpose of the recommendations is to reduce technical barriers to trade and facilitate access to international markets. The document is based on Recommendation L of the UNECE WP 6 and is structured according to the general regulatory framework.
The general regulatory framework includes four main sections:
Scope of Application – defines the range of products or services to which it is applied.
Product Requirements – identifies the main problems in the field of safety, health, and the environment, specifies the main requirements, and makes references to relevant international standards or norms, includes:
Product Conformity – describes ways to demonstrate compliance, including possible methods such as supplier declaration, third-party certification, or inspection. As part of the conformity assessment of hydrogen pipelines, not only should pipeline equipment be considered, but also organizations involved in its design, manufacture, installation, operation, maintenance, and repairs, including the qualifications of the relevant personnel.
Market Surveillance – describes the mechanisms for ensuring continued compliance, including the conditions under which restrictions may be imposed on a product or it may be withdrawn from the market. The key principles of market surveillance in the context of hydrogen transportation and storage are compliance with regulations, i.e., if possible, oversight mechanisms should be brought into line with recognized international standards.
The final version of the document contains references to ISO and IEC standards, and in addition to API standards, ISO and IEC standards are indicated as alternatives, which significantly reduces the influence of the American Petroleum Institute.
Considering that fact, the essence of the recommendations is to serve as a model for developing legislation in countries where regulations for pipeline infrastructure for hydrogen transportation are currently lacking and to help bring existing national standards into line with internationally harmonized best practices. The UNECE recognizes ISO standards as the leading best practice, not API. This approach allows experts from all countries to participate in the development of advanced standards.
A significant achievement of the working group is the creation documents related to the transportation of hydrogen through main pipelines operating in China, Australia, the United States, and the European Union, as well as the identification of the main ISO standards on this topic. The results of the analysis are contained in the Appendix to the Recommendations. The recommendations were approved in September 2025 during the Standardization Forum organized by the UNECE WP 6, and are officially published.
Co-author/s:
Darya Michurina, Senior Expert of Committee on Technical Regulation, Russian Union of Industrialists and Enterpreneures.
Aleksej Samsonov, Research Associate, Youth Laboratory, Moscow State University of Civil Engineering.
The purpose of the recommendations is to reduce technical barriers to trade and facilitate access to international markets. The document is based on Recommendation L of the UNECE WP 6 and is structured according to the general regulatory framework.
The general regulatory framework includes four main sections:
Scope of Application – defines the range of products or services to which it is applied.
Product Requirements – identifies the main problems in the field of safety, health, and the environment, specifies the main requirements, and makes references to relevant international standards or norms, includes:
- a description of the properties of hydrogen and the need to take them into account when regulating products;
- material compatibility and design factors;
- explosion protection and fire safety requirements.
Product Conformity – describes ways to demonstrate compliance, including possible methods such as supplier declaration, third-party certification, or inspection. As part of the conformity assessment of hydrogen pipelines, not only should pipeline equipment be considered, but also organizations involved in its design, manufacture, installation, operation, maintenance, and repairs, including the qualifications of the relevant personnel.
Market Surveillance – describes the mechanisms for ensuring continued compliance, including the conditions under which restrictions may be imposed on a product or it may be withdrawn from the market. The key principles of market surveillance in the context of hydrogen transportation and storage are compliance with regulations, i.e., if possible, oversight mechanisms should be brought into line with recognized international standards.
The final version of the document contains references to ISO and IEC standards, and in addition to API standards, ISO and IEC standards are indicated as alternatives, which significantly reduces the influence of the American Petroleum Institute.
Considering that fact, the essence of the recommendations is to serve as a model for developing legislation in countries where regulations for pipeline infrastructure for hydrogen transportation are currently lacking and to help bring existing national standards into line with internationally harmonized best practices. The UNECE recognizes ISO standards as the leading best practice, not API. This approach allows experts from all countries to participate in the development of advanced standards.
A significant achievement of the working group is the creation documents related to the transportation of hydrogen through main pipelines operating in China, Australia, the United States, and the European Union, as well as the identification of the main ISO standards on this topic. The results of the analysis are contained in the Appendix to the Recommendations. The recommendations were approved in September 2025 during the Standardization Forum organized by the UNECE WP 6, and are officially published.
Co-author/s:
Darya Michurina, Senior Expert of Committee on Technical Regulation, Russian Union of Industrialists and Enterpreneures.
Aleksej Samsonov, Research Associate, Youth Laboratory, Moscow State University of Civil Engineering.
Abdullah Faisal Al Marshed
Chair
Professor
Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR), Kuwait
ShaoHua Dong
Vice Chair
Changping District, Beijing, China
China University of Petroleum (Beijing)
As hydrogen emerges as a critical pillar of the global decarbonization agenda, enabling its safe, cost-effective, and scalable transportation is essential. One strategic approach is the repurposing of existing oil and gas infrastructure—particularly midstream pipeline networks and subsurface storage reservoirs—for hydrogen transmission. This reuse strategy offers significant capital cost savings and deployment speed; however, it introduces substantial technical risks due to hydrogen’s unique properties. Its low molecular weight, high diffusivity, and propensity to cause material embrittlement increase the probability of undetected leakage, structural degradation, and cascading failure events. These limitations necessitate advanced monitoring architectures beyond conventional integrity management systems.
This research proposes an end-to-end framework that combines repurposed infrastructure with intelligent, AI-based leak detection and predictive monitoring systems. The approach comprises four main stages:
4. Risk Scoring and Decision Support: A real-time risk dashboard correlates leak probability indices, location certainty, and severity levels. Predictive maintenance schedules are generated by coupling AI output with a digital twin of the infrastructure, reducing both false alarms and unplanned downtime.
Informed by insights from recent advancements in underground hydrogen storage—including wettability dynamics, brine-rock-H₂ interaction, and caprock sealing failure—this framework ensures that geomechanical and geochemical risks are accounted for during model training and operational calibration.
By combining retrofitted legacy systems with next-generation intelligent diagnostics, this research delivers a scalable blueprint for hydrogen transport that meets stringent safety, environmental, and economic performance metrics. It establishes a practical foundation for integrating hydrogen into national energy grids while ensuring integrity across critical assets during the energy transition.
This research proposes an end-to-end framework that combines repurposed infrastructure with intelligent, AI-based leak detection and predictive monitoring systems. The approach comprises four main stages:
- Sensor Data Integration: Deployment of a multi-modal sensor array (acoustic emission sensors, distributed fiber-optic sensors, pressure and flow meters, and electrochemical H₂ sensors) along pipeline routes and at critical stress points (e.g., valves, weld zones, storage wells). These generate high-resolution spatial-temporal data on strain, vibration, pressure transients, and gas composition.
- Data Preprocessing and Fusion: Application of signal denoising techniques, time-series synchronization, and data fusion methods to integrate heterogeneous sensor outputs. Feature engineering extracts meaningful physical patterns such as micro-leak signatures, abrupt pressure drops, or harmonic changes indicative of crack propagation.
- AI Model Architecture: Design of a hybrid machine learning pipeline consisting of:
- Supervised classifiers (e.g., gradient boosting, CNN-LSTM) trained on labeled fault events and benchmark datasets to identify and classify leak types.
- Unsupervised models (e.g., autoencoders, isolation forests) to detect early-stage anomalies in non-linear patterns where no labeled failures exist.
- Physics-informed neural networks (PINNs) integrated with hydrogen flow simulations and fracture mechanics to enhance model interpretability and generalizability under unseen conditions.
4. Risk Scoring and Decision Support: A real-time risk dashboard correlates leak probability indices, location certainty, and severity levels. Predictive maintenance schedules are generated by coupling AI output with a digital twin of the infrastructure, reducing both false alarms and unplanned downtime.
Informed by insights from recent advancements in underground hydrogen storage—including wettability dynamics, brine-rock-H₂ interaction, and caprock sealing failure—this framework ensures that geomechanical and geochemical risks are accounted for during model training and operational calibration.
By combining retrofitted legacy systems with next-generation intelligent diagnostics, this research delivers a scalable blueprint for hydrogen transport that meets stringent safety, environmental, and economic performance metrics. It establishes a practical foundation for integrating hydrogen into national energy grids while ensuring integrity across critical assets during the energy transition.
David Ehlig
Speaker
Hydrogen Liquefaction Product & Proposal Manager
Air Liquide Engineering & Construction
OBJECTIVE:
Large-scale hydrogen liquefaction (XL LH2) technologies are crucial for enabling cost-effective intercontinental hydrogen transport supply chains. This abstract assesses the economic and technological readiness of XL LH2 technologies and identifies key development needs. It also examines the feasibility of integrating XL LH2 with low-carbon hydrogen production via reforming and electrolysis, highlighting its essential role in enabling the global transport and utilization of low-carbon hydrogen.
SCALING UP LIQUEFACTION TRAINS:
Furthermore, emerging boiloff gas management technologies derived from LNG will bring additional significant TCO reductions to the LH2 export value chain.
ACHIEVING XL LH2 DOWNSTREAM OF REFORMING & ELECTROLYTIC H2 PRODUCTION:
Low-carbon LH2: All technologies are available to produce LH2 downstream of thermochemical reforming (SMR/ATR) with carbon capture, and integrated process solutions will optimize overall TCO.
Renewable LH2: Producing renewable LH2 presents some challenges as cryogenic processes are typically developed for steady supply of energy and feedstocks; however, solar and wind are intermittent. Therefore, overcoming this intermittency hurdle will require development on cryogenic technologies, flexible operations and process control to maximize liquid hydrogen production while managing frequent transitory runs. Furthermore, proprietary algorithms have been developed to optimize the entire renewable LH2 value chain, including the process scheme and equipment sizing, to identify the most cost-effective solution during early development.
CONCLUSION:
LH2 will play an important role in the intercontinental export of low-carbon energy, and technological advancements are on track to enable future LH2 export markets. Encouragingly, our techno-readiness assessment indicates that current technologies can support liquefaction up to approximately 150tpd, with ready-for-offer designs. Our analysis also found that scaling beyond 500tpd trains brings considerable liquefaction TCO reductions up to -60% versus today’s state-of-the-art.
Large-scale hydrogen liquefaction (XL LH2) technologies are crucial for enabling cost-effective intercontinental hydrogen transport supply chains. This abstract assesses the economic and technological readiness of XL LH2 technologies and identifies key development needs. It also examines the feasibility of integrating XL LH2 with low-carbon hydrogen production via reforming and electrolysis, highlighting its essential role in enabling the global transport and utilization of low-carbon hydrogen.
SCALING UP LIQUEFACTION TRAINS:
- 5-50tpd: State-of-the-art & referenced technology with a nitrogen precooling cycle and either a hydrogen or helium liquefaction cycle.
- 50-150tpd: Technologies are available with ready-for-offer designs. The implementation of hydrogen expanders with energy recovery and liquid turbines bring considerable efficiency gains. We also detect significant capex optimization opportunities thanks to scale-effect. Scaling up is an opportunity to reduce total cost of ownership (TCO) by -30% to -45% versus state-of-the-art (30tpd executed liquefier).
- 150-300tpd: Extra-large scale is just around the corner. Key technologies are already ready for implementation, notably the innovative cycles, large nitrogen & mixed-refrigerant compressors, and large cold boxes. To achieve these capacities, future techno developments are required to scale up the hydrogen & nitrogen expanders and hydrogen compressors. Techno developments are well on track, and this scale is an opportunity to reduce TCO by -50% to -60% versus state-of-the-art.
- 500tpd+: Scaling to very large trains is an interesting step to improve economics. Although these technologies are still in the development phase, they are anticipated to be feasible at this scale and allow TCO reductions of at least -60%++ versus state-of-the-art.
Furthermore, emerging boiloff gas management technologies derived from LNG will bring additional significant TCO reductions to the LH2 export value chain.
ACHIEVING XL LH2 DOWNSTREAM OF REFORMING & ELECTROLYTIC H2 PRODUCTION:
Low-carbon LH2: All technologies are available to produce LH2 downstream of thermochemical reforming (SMR/ATR) with carbon capture, and integrated process solutions will optimize overall TCO.
Renewable LH2: Producing renewable LH2 presents some challenges as cryogenic processes are typically developed for steady supply of energy and feedstocks; however, solar and wind are intermittent. Therefore, overcoming this intermittency hurdle will require development on cryogenic technologies, flexible operations and process control to maximize liquid hydrogen production while managing frequent transitory runs. Furthermore, proprietary algorithms have been developed to optimize the entire renewable LH2 value chain, including the process scheme and equipment sizing, to identify the most cost-effective solution during early development.
CONCLUSION:
LH2 will play an important role in the intercontinental export of low-carbon energy, and technological advancements are on track to enable future LH2 export markets. Encouragingly, our techno-readiness assessment indicates that current technologies can support liquefaction up to approximately 150tpd, with ready-for-offer designs. Our analysis also found that scaling beyond 500tpd trains brings considerable liquefaction TCO reductions up to -60% versus today’s state-of-the-art.
As Egypt advances its energy strategy and moves toward becoming a regional energy hub, integrating hydrogen into the natural gas infrastructure is a strategic priority within the national hydrogen plan. This paper explores the technical feasibility, operational challenges, international benchmarks, and strategic opportunities for hydrogen delivery in Egypt’s gas networks, focusing on both low-level blending and the transition toward dedicated hydrogen systems.
Hydrogen’s unique physical and chemical properties—high diffusivity, low density, and wide flammability range—pose challenges when mixed with natural gas. These include reduced energy content per unit volume, increased flow velocity, potential material degradation, and heightened safety considerations. The analysis covers two main scenarios: blending hydrogen with natural gas at up to 20% by volume and developing 100% hydrogen transport corridors. Each scenario is assessed in terms of technical performance, regulatory requirements, contractual adjustments, and environmental impacts.
A review of Egypt’s gas network reveals regulatory and technical gaps that must be addressed to ensure safe and efficient hydrogen integration. International experiences from Germany, the Netherlands, Japan, and South Korea show the value of standardized pipeline materials, advanced leak detection, and continuous gas composition monitoring. Case studies such as HyDeploy (UK), HyNet North West (UK), and HyStock (Netherlands) demonstrate practical lessons in scaling hydrogen blending, integrating storage, and coordinating multi-stakeholder governance.
To quantify operational impacts, the Synergi Gas simulation platform was used to model the effects of hydrogen blending on pipeline hydraulics, pressure drops, flow velocities, and material compatibility. The results highlight the urgent need to upgrade legacy infrastructure, optimize pipeline diameters, reinforce compressor capacity, and install hydrogen-calibrated metering and regulation systems to maintain operational efficiency and safety.
The environmental and economic assessment indicates that hydrogen blending can contribute to emissions reduction and energy diversification but requires clear frameworks for implementation and robust monitoring strategies. Recommended actions include adopting hydrogen-compatible materials, expanding storage capacity—especially through salt cavern projects—decentralizing injection points to enhance system flexibility, and improving coordination between TSOs, DSOs, suppliers, shippers, regulators, and the Ministry of Petroleum.
For successful deployment, Egypt must update legal and technical standards to define blending limits, ensure infrastructure compatibility, and enforce hydrogen quality control. Coupled with investment planning, targeted economic incentives, and a strong governance model, these measures will encourage participation in the hydrogen value chain. With coordinated policy action, infrastructure modernization, and stakeholder engagement, Egypt can safely and efficiently adapt its gas network to support a low-carbon, hydrogen-enabled future.
Hydrogen’s unique physical and chemical properties—high diffusivity, low density, and wide flammability range—pose challenges when mixed with natural gas. These include reduced energy content per unit volume, increased flow velocity, potential material degradation, and heightened safety considerations. The analysis covers two main scenarios: blending hydrogen with natural gas at up to 20% by volume and developing 100% hydrogen transport corridors. Each scenario is assessed in terms of technical performance, regulatory requirements, contractual adjustments, and environmental impacts.
A review of Egypt’s gas network reveals regulatory and technical gaps that must be addressed to ensure safe and efficient hydrogen integration. International experiences from Germany, the Netherlands, Japan, and South Korea show the value of standardized pipeline materials, advanced leak detection, and continuous gas composition monitoring. Case studies such as HyDeploy (UK), HyNet North West (UK), and HyStock (Netherlands) demonstrate practical lessons in scaling hydrogen blending, integrating storage, and coordinating multi-stakeholder governance.
To quantify operational impacts, the Synergi Gas simulation platform was used to model the effects of hydrogen blending on pipeline hydraulics, pressure drops, flow velocities, and material compatibility. The results highlight the urgent need to upgrade legacy infrastructure, optimize pipeline diameters, reinforce compressor capacity, and install hydrogen-calibrated metering and regulation systems to maintain operational efficiency and safety.
The environmental and economic assessment indicates that hydrogen blending can contribute to emissions reduction and energy diversification but requires clear frameworks for implementation and robust monitoring strategies. Recommended actions include adopting hydrogen-compatible materials, expanding storage capacity—especially through salt cavern projects—decentralizing injection points to enhance system flexibility, and improving coordination between TSOs, DSOs, suppliers, shippers, regulators, and the Ministry of Petroleum.
For successful deployment, Egypt must update legal and technical standards to define blending limits, ensure infrastructure compatibility, and enforce hydrogen quality control. Coupled with investment planning, targeted economic incentives, and a strong governance model, these measures will encourage participation in the hydrogen value chain. With coordinated policy action, infrastructure modernization, and stakeholder engagement, Egypt can safely and efficiently adapt its gas network to support a low-carbon, hydrogen-enabled future.
The global pursuit of clean, secure, and sustainable energy systems has elevated hydrogen to a central role in decarbonization strategies. As a versatile, carbon-free energy carrier, hydrogen can be produced from diverse feedstocks—including water, biomass, and fossil fuels—and its combustion emits only water, offering a transformative solution for sectors resistant to electrification, such as heavy industry, long-haul transport, and grid stabilization. Beyond its environmental advantages, hydrogen enables large-scale energy storage, mitigates intermittency of renewables, and enhances systemic flexibility. To assess its full potential, the hydrogen value chain must be examined across four interdependent domains: production, storage, transportation, and utilization. Current hydrogen production is dominated by steam methane reforming (SMR) and coal gasification, which are cost-effective but carbon-intensive. In contrast, water electrolysis powered by renewable electricity yields "green hydrogen" with near-zero emissions. Technological advancements in electrolyzers—notably proton exchange membrane (PEM), alkaline, and solid oxide systems—have improved efficiency and scalability, though challenges like high capital costs and energy inputs persist. Emerging methods, such as biomass gasification and solar-driven photoelectrochemical splitting, show promise but require further development to achieve commercial viability. Efficient storage is critical to align hydrogen’s intermittent production with demand. Compressed gas and cryogenic liquid storage are mature technologies but suffer from low energy density and boil-off losses. Solid-state alternatives, such as metal hydrides and porous adsorbents (e.g., metal-organic frameworks), offer higher volumetric efficiency and enhanced safety. However, material degradation, thermal management, and scalability issues necessitate ongoing research to optimize these systems for widespread deployment. Hydrogen’s low density and reactivity pose unique transport challenges. Pipelines are cost-effective for regional distribution but require specialized materials to prevent embrittlement. For long-distance transport, liquefied hydrogen tankers and chemical carriers (e.g., ammonia, liquid organic hydrogen carriers) are gaining traction, with recent improvements in cryogenic insulation and catalytic conversion efficiency reducing energy penalties. Hydrogen’s versatility enables deep decarbonization across multiple sectors. In transport, it powers fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs), heavy-duty trucks, and maritime vessels, with prototypes for aviation underscoring its potential for energy-dense applications. Industrial uses include steelmaking via direct reduced iron (DRI) processes, reducing CO₂ emissions by over 90% compared to conventional blast furnaces. Hydrogen also serves as a critical feedstock for ammonia synthesis, methanol production, and petroleum refining, while its integration into gas turbines and hybrid power plants enhances grid stability. Hydrogen’s unique attributes—clean combustion, storage capacity, and cross-sector applicability—make it indispensable for achieving net-zero emissions. Realizing its full potential demands coordinated advancements across production, storage, transport, and end-use technologies, supported by policy frameworks and infrastructure investments. As renewable energy capacity expands, hydrogen is poised to underpin resilient, low-carbon energy systems worldwide.
Roman Samsonov
Speaker
Research Lead of the Youth Laboratory "Organizational and Technological Systems for Using Artificial Intelligence in Construction"
Moscow State Construction University
In January 2024 the working group “Working Party on Regulatory Cooperation and Standardization Policies” was established under UNECE WP 6. The target is to prepare recommendations for the transportation of hydrogen through main pipelines. Representatives from six countries – Germany, the USA, Russia, China, Canada and Belgium, as well as experts from industrial associations within the European Union (IRENA), Russia (RSPP Committee), and the USA (API) - took part in the working group activities.
The purpose of the recommendations is to reduce technical barriers to trade and facilitate access to international markets. The document is based on Recommendation L of the UNECE WP 6 and is structured according to the general regulatory framework.
The general regulatory framework includes four main sections:
Scope of Application – defines the range of products or services to which it is applied.
Product Requirements – identifies the main problems in the field of safety, health, and the environment, specifies the main requirements, and makes references to relevant international standards or norms, includes:
Product Conformity – describes ways to demonstrate compliance, including possible methods such as supplier declaration, third-party certification, or inspection. As part of the conformity assessment of hydrogen pipelines, not only should pipeline equipment be considered, but also organizations involved in its design, manufacture, installation, operation, maintenance, and repairs, including the qualifications of the relevant personnel.
Market Surveillance – describes the mechanisms for ensuring continued compliance, including the conditions under which restrictions may be imposed on a product or it may be withdrawn from the market. The key principles of market surveillance in the context of hydrogen transportation and storage are compliance with regulations, i.e., if possible, oversight mechanisms should be brought into line with recognized international standards.
The final version of the document contains references to ISO and IEC standards, and in addition to API standards, ISO and IEC standards are indicated as alternatives, which significantly reduces the influence of the American Petroleum Institute.
Considering that fact, the essence of the recommendations is to serve as a model for developing legislation in countries where regulations for pipeline infrastructure for hydrogen transportation are currently lacking and to help bring existing national standards into line with internationally harmonized best practices. The UNECE recognizes ISO standards as the leading best practice, not API. This approach allows experts from all countries to participate in the development of advanced standards.
A significant achievement of the working group is the creation documents related to the transportation of hydrogen through main pipelines operating in China, Australia, the United States, and the European Union, as well as the identification of the main ISO standards on this topic. The results of the analysis are contained in the Appendix to the Recommendations. The recommendations were approved in September 2025 during the Standardization Forum organized by the UNECE WP 6, and are officially published.
Co-author/s:
Darya Michurina, Senior Expert of Committee on Technical Regulation, Russian Union of Industrialists and Enterpreneures.
Aleksej Samsonov, Research Associate, Youth Laboratory, Moscow State University of Civil Engineering.
The purpose of the recommendations is to reduce technical barriers to trade and facilitate access to international markets. The document is based on Recommendation L of the UNECE WP 6 and is structured according to the general regulatory framework.
The general regulatory framework includes four main sections:
Scope of Application – defines the range of products or services to which it is applied.
Product Requirements – identifies the main problems in the field of safety, health, and the environment, specifies the main requirements, and makes references to relevant international standards or norms, includes:
- a description of the properties of hydrogen and the need to take them into account when regulating products;
- material compatibility and design factors;
- explosion protection and fire safety requirements.
Product Conformity – describes ways to demonstrate compliance, including possible methods such as supplier declaration, third-party certification, or inspection. As part of the conformity assessment of hydrogen pipelines, not only should pipeline equipment be considered, but also organizations involved in its design, manufacture, installation, operation, maintenance, and repairs, including the qualifications of the relevant personnel.
Market Surveillance – describes the mechanisms for ensuring continued compliance, including the conditions under which restrictions may be imposed on a product or it may be withdrawn from the market. The key principles of market surveillance in the context of hydrogen transportation and storage are compliance with regulations, i.e., if possible, oversight mechanisms should be brought into line with recognized international standards.
The final version of the document contains references to ISO and IEC standards, and in addition to API standards, ISO and IEC standards are indicated as alternatives, which significantly reduces the influence of the American Petroleum Institute.
Considering that fact, the essence of the recommendations is to serve as a model for developing legislation in countries where regulations for pipeline infrastructure for hydrogen transportation are currently lacking and to help bring existing national standards into line with internationally harmonized best practices. The UNECE recognizes ISO standards as the leading best practice, not API. This approach allows experts from all countries to participate in the development of advanced standards.
A significant achievement of the working group is the creation documents related to the transportation of hydrogen through main pipelines operating in China, Australia, the United States, and the European Union, as well as the identification of the main ISO standards on this topic. The results of the analysis are contained in the Appendix to the Recommendations. The recommendations were approved in September 2025 during the Standardization Forum organized by the UNECE WP 6, and are officially published.
Co-author/s:
Darya Michurina, Senior Expert of Committee on Technical Regulation, Russian Union of Industrialists and Enterpreneures.
Aleksej Samsonov, Research Associate, Youth Laboratory, Moscow State University of Civil Engineering.
After years of rapid development of wind power industry in China, the development of excellent onshore wind power and offshore wind power resources has approached saturation, and deep sea offshore wind power has become an inevitable choice for industrial development. The exploitable offshore wind energy resources in China's deep-sea areas exceed 2 billion kilowatts, making deep-sea offshore wind power an inevitable choice for industrial development. However, the grid connection and consumption of deep-sea electricity are challenging. The conventional method of collection, transmission, boosting/conversion, and power delivery via submarine cables incurs exceedingly high costs. Offshore wind power hydrogen production emerges as a potential solution for consumption. However, due to the extremely low density of hydrogen, traditional high-pressure hydrogen storage methods exhibit low volumetric energy density, failing to meet the requirements in terms of safety, hydrogen storage density, and cost. It is imperative to explore novel approaches suitable for offshore storage and transportation, capable of convenient storage and consumption at a higher volumetric energy density.
Liquid organic hydrogen carrier(LOHC) exhibits high volumetric and gravimetric energy densities, enabling storage and transportation under ambient temperature and pressure conditions. It leverages existing oil infrastructure, presenting a promising application prospect. Methylcyclohexane-toluene is one of the most promising LOHC technologies, capable of fully utilizing existing oil infrastructure, including offshore oil platforms, Floating Production Storage and Offloading(FPSO) units, submarine oil pipelines, oil tankers, receiving terminals, and oil storage tanks. This facilitates a deep integration of the offshore oil industry with the offshore wind power industry, significantly reducing storage and transportation costs.
Taking the deep-sea offshore wind power in the Shanwei area of eastern Guangdong, China, as an example, hydrogen is produced and then stored and transported using methylcyclohexane-toluene as the medium, leveraging existing offshore oil industrial facilities.
Scenario 1: An FPSO equipped with a booster station, a hydrogen production station, and toluene hydrogenation facilities is stationed within the offshore wind farm. Toluene is synthesized with hydrogen produced from offshore wind power to form methylcyclohexane, which is then stored. Periodically, oil tankers transport the methylcyclohexane back to land for reception, storage, and centralized dehydrogenation.
Scenario 2: Utilizing existing decommissioned offshore platforms, a booster station, a hydrogen production station, and toluene hydrogenation facilities are established. The produced methylcyclohexane is transported to onshore storage and centralized dehydrogenation through existing submarine oil pipelines.
A technical and cost analysis of the above two options is conducted, including the calculation of hydrogen costs at each stage and a comparative economic analysis. This provides a reference for the integrated development of deep-sea offshore wind power and the offshore oil industry.
Liquid organic hydrogen carrier(LOHC) exhibits high volumetric and gravimetric energy densities, enabling storage and transportation under ambient temperature and pressure conditions. It leverages existing oil infrastructure, presenting a promising application prospect. Methylcyclohexane-toluene is one of the most promising LOHC technologies, capable of fully utilizing existing oil infrastructure, including offshore oil platforms, Floating Production Storage and Offloading(FPSO) units, submarine oil pipelines, oil tankers, receiving terminals, and oil storage tanks. This facilitates a deep integration of the offshore oil industry with the offshore wind power industry, significantly reducing storage and transportation costs.
Taking the deep-sea offshore wind power in the Shanwei area of eastern Guangdong, China, as an example, hydrogen is produced and then stored and transported using methylcyclohexane-toluene as the medium, leveraging existing offshore oil industrial facilities.
Scenario 1: An FPSO equipped with a booster station, a hydrogen production station, and toluene hydrogenation facilities is stationed within the offshore wind farm. Toluene is synthesized with hydrogen produced from offshore wind power to form methylcyclohexane, which is then stored. Periodically, oil tankers transport the methylcyclohexane back to land for reception, storage, and centralized dehydrogenation.
Scenario 2: Utilizing existing decommissioned offshore platforms, a booster station, a hydrogen production station, and toluene hydrogenation facilities are established. The produced methylcyclohexane is transported to onshore storage and centralized dehydrogenation through existing submarine oil pipelines.
A technical and cost analysis of the above two options is conducted, including the calculation of hydrogen costs at each stage and a comparative economic analysis. This provides a reference for the integrated development of deep-sea offshore wind power and the offshore oil industry.
Yuchen Wang
Speaker
R&D Engineer
State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, Sinopec Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd
Hydrogen energy development serves as a critical pathway to achieve "carbon peaking and carbon neutrality" goals and ensure energy security. However, a spatiotemporal mismatch exists between green hydrogen supply and demand in China, where abundant renewable resources in the northwest contrast with concentrated energy consumption in eastern regions. To address this challenge, China Petroleum and Chemical Corporation (SINOPEC) has initiated the Long-Distance Hydrogen Transportation Project, establishing hydrogen pipelines exceeding 1,000 kilometers for cross-regional distribution. In the course of hydrogen transportation, key hydrogen facing equipment such as pipelines, storage tanks, compressors, etc. face extreme factors such as high-pressure hydrogen gas, extreme temperature, and cyclic use conditions during service, which can easily lead to equipment failure under coupling effects. Therefore, it is urgent to attach great importance to the material failure risk in the process of green hydrogen transportation. This article studies the failure mechanisms of these three devices, such as the long-term contact between pipes and hydrogen, which can cause hydrogen to invade the interior of hydrogen pipelines, resulting in reduced pipe performance and decreased fracture toughness; Hydrogen storage containers are subjected to continuous pressure fluctuations, which can lead to the accumulation of microscopic damage in stress concentration areas, thereby inducing crack initiation and propagation, ultimately resulting in fracture failure; Diaphragm hydrogen compressors are subjected to high-pressure hydrogen, high environmental temperature, and high-frequency fatigue loads, causing a transformation in the microstructure of the material and resulting in a decrease in mechanical properties. Under frequent collision and deformation between the diaphragm and the diaphragm cavity, they eventually rupture and fail. On the basis of in-depth analysis of the failure mechanism of the above-mentioned equipment in high-pressure hydrogen environment, this article further proposes targeted safety suggestions from multiple aspects such as material modification, structural design, and process optimization, laying a solid safety foundation for the design and operation of long-distance hydrogen transmission pipeline projects and ensuring the safe and high-quality development of the green hydrogen industry.
Co-author/s:
Zhe Yang, President, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
Wei Xu, Vice President, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
Wenyi Dang, Vice President, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
Qian Wu, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
Yun Luo, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
Anfeng Yu, Expert, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
Huan Liu, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
Zetian Kang, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
Co-author/s:
Zhe Yang, President, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
Wei Xu, Vice President, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
Wenyi Dang, Vice President, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
Qian Wu, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
Yun Luo, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
Anfeng Yu, Expert, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
Huan Liu, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
Zetian Kang, R&D Engineer State Key Laboratory of Chemical Safety, SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd.
